Table 3 Herbicide-associated cancer

Not specifically identified

Human study

-

Significantly associated with 1.5 to 2.0-fold higher risk of diffuse-type gastric cancer.

Shah et al. [64]

Significantly associated with an increased risk of thyroid cancer.

Han, Kim, and Song [65]

Significantly associated with endometrial cancer in agricultural, poultry, livestock exposure.

Peñalver-Piñol et al. [67]

Significantly associated with brain tumor in childhood domestic exposure.

Onyije et al. [69]

Acetochlor

Human study

-

Significantly increased risk of colorectal cancer in high lifetime users and lung cancer in ever and low lifetime users.

Lerro et al. [68]

Imazaquin and Imazethapyr

Human study

-

Significantly increased risk of bladder cancer, especially among non-smokers.

Koutros et al. [66]

GLY

Human study

-

Significantly associated with NHL incidence.

De Roos et al. [70]

Significantly increased risk of follicular lymphoma.

Meloni et al. [71]

Significantly associated with detectable mosaic loss of chromosome Y in high lifetime users.

Chang et al. [72]

2,4-D

hDPSCs

0.1 µM to 10 mM

Induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in subjects.

Mahmoudinia et al. [73]

Male Wistar rats

20 to 52 ppm

Induced hyperkeratosis in esophageal epithelium cells, and mild dysplasia in small and large intestine.

Mariotti et al. [74]

15, 75 and 150 mg/kg/day

Reduced the body weight, increased liver weight, and hypertrophy of heart, and induced oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation in erythrocytes.

Wafa et al. [75]

ATZ

Human study

-

Significantly associated with NHL incidence.

Remigio et al. [76]

PQ

Human study

-

Significantly increased the risk of NHL in users.

Park et al. [77]

Male Wistar rats

30 to 200 mg/kg/day

Induced pathological changes and cell death in lung, kidney, and liver tissue, as well as DNA damage in peripheral lymphocytes through oxidative stress.

Alizadeh et al. [78]

HeLa and Hep G2 cell lines and human peripheral lymphocytes

50 to 300 µM

Induced strand break and oxidized bases of DNA under certain concentration and time of exposure depend on cell types.

Petrovská and Dušinská [79]