Herbicide-related health risks: key mechanisms and a guide to mitigation strategies

Table 2 Herbicide-associated neurodegenerative disorders

Herbicide	Subjects	Dose Exposure	Main findings	Ref
PQ	C57BL/6J mice	10 mg/kg	- Reduced motor control through dopaminergic neuron loss, lipid profile alteration, inflammation activation, and PD-related gene malfunction. - Induced DNA 8-oxodG in the brain, heart, and small intestine.	De Luca et al. [56] and Tong et al. [57]
PQ	Human osteosarcoma cells	30 µM	Induced the aggregation of Huntington protein and cell death through disruption of protein degradation pathways.	Pinho et al. [58]
GLY	C57BL/6J mice	125 to 500 mg/kg/day	Induced neuroinflammation through the upregulation of TNF-α cytokine.	Winstone et al. [59]
	APP/PS1 pups primary cortical neurons	10 to 40 µg/mL	Induced the expression of soluble Aβ₄₀₋₄₂ and decreased cell viability.	Winstone et al. [59]
	Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)	0.1 to 1000 µM	Altered metabolic activity and enhanced permeability of the blood-brain barrier through the disruption of occludin and claudin-5 proteins.	Martinez and Al-Ahmad [60]
Triazine group	In silico study	-	Disrupted cell cycling and cellular senescence processes through targeting EGFR, FN1, and TYMS proteins.	Li et al. [61]

ISSN: 1745-6673